An introduction to programmer model of computer organisation using assembly and machine language. Process of translation from high-level language to machine instructions. Number representation, computer arithmetic, instruction set architecture, I/O interfacing, I/O interrupts, programming interrupts, exceptions and their support in architecture. Memory management and protection and their support in architecture, the role of OS in handling exceptions. Multi-tasking and multi-threading environments. Use of interrupts for sampling, link-lists and circular buffers. D/A and A/D conversion and interfacing to the real physical world. Appreciation of the concepts learnt in the deployment of real-time systems.